Understanding Droughts In India

Drought is an extended period of dryness within the natural climate cycle, capable of manifesting anywhere in the world. It represents a gradual-onset disaster characterised by insufficient precipitation, leading to a deficit in water supply.

The ramifications of droughts are far-reaching, profoundly impacting economies, public health, agriculture, energy production, and the overall natural and physical environment.

Classification of Drought:

1. Meteorological Drought:

• Meteorological drought occurs when an extended period with inadequate and unevenly distributed rainfall is experienced.
• As defined by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), a drought is recognized when the average annual rainfall is less than 75% of the historical average.

Causes:

• Scanty monsoon rains and subpar precipitation
• Delayed onset or premature withdrawal of the monsoon
• Prolonged interruptions in monsoon rainfall

2. Hydrological Drought:

Hydrological drought transpires when the available water in various reservoirs and storage facilities such as aquifers, lakes, and dams dwindles below the rate at which precipitation can restore it. 

There are two primary types of hydrological droughts:

a) Surface Water Drought: This type pertains to the depletion of surface water resources like rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.

b) Groundwater Drought: This variation is associated with a decline in the groundwater levels.

Causes:

• Widespread deforestation
• Environmentally detrimental mining practices
• Excessive extraction of groundwater through pumping

3. Agricultural Drought:

• Agricultural drought, also referred to as soil moisture drought, is characterised by insufficient soil moisture required to sustain crops, leading to crop failures. 
• It's important to note that areas with over 30% of their cultivated land under irrigation are exempt from being categorized as drought-prone.

Causes:

• Over reliance on High Yielding Seeds (HYV) which demand more water and meticulous irrigation
• Alteration in cropping patterns, as seen with the introduction of the green revolution, leading to overproduction of water-intensive crops like rice in areas with inadequate water supply

4. Ecological Drought:

Ecological drought occurs when the productivity of natural ecosystems diminishes due to insufficient water availability, resulting in ecological disturbances and harm to the ecosystem.

5. Socio-economic Drought:

Socio-economic drought pertains to water scarcity's impact on societal elements, influencing the availability of essential resources like food grains and fodder.

Droughts: Indian Context:

• India boasts an exceptional average annual rainfall of approximately 120 cm, an unmatched statistic globally. However, this rainfall is subject to significant yearly fluctuations. 

• A majority of this precipitation, exceeding 80%, arrives in less than 100 days during the southwest monsoon, and its distribution across the country is uneven.

• Around 21% of regions receive less than 700 mm of rainfall each year, rendering these areas vulnerable to drought, which becomes a significant concern. 

• The combination of insufficient rainfall and an unfavorable ratio of land to population compels farmers across a substantial portion of the nation, roughly 45%, to rely on rainfed agriculture.

• The availability of water per person in India is in a continuous decline. 

• The practice of irrigation and excessive exploitation of groundwater exacerbate the situation, as groundwater extraction surpasses replenishment rates over time.

• Estimates indicate that nearly 19% of the nation's total land area and 12% of its population confront drought annually. A significant 30% of the country's land is categorized as drought-prone, affecting approximately 50 million people.

• It's a recurring pattern that while certain areas grapple with floods, others experience severe drought during the same time frame. This phenomenon can be attributed to the substantial variations and unpredictability inherent in India's monsoons.

Areas of Extreme Drought :

This classification encompasses a large portion of Rajasthan, particularly the regions west of the Aravali hills, including Marusthali and the Kachchh areas in Gujarat. Additionally, districts like Jaisalmer and Barmer in the Indian desert receive an average annual rainfall of less than 90 mm.

Regions Prone to Severe Drought:

This category includes parts of eastern Rajasthan, most of Madhya Pradesh, the eastern sections of Maharashtra, interior zones of Andhra Pradesh, the Karnataka Plateau, northern parts of interior Tamil Nadu, and the southern areas of Jharkhand and interior Odisha.

Areas Affected by Moderate Drought:

In this group, you'll find northern segments of Rajasthan, Haryana, the southern districts of Uttar Pradesh, the remaining areas of Gujarat excluding Konkan, Maharashtra (except Konkan), Jharkhand, and the Coimbatore plateau in Tamil Nadu, along with interior Karnataka. Other parts of India can be perceived as either free from or less susceptible to drought.

Drought Nomenclature:

Drought is determined by comparing current rainfall with the long-term average. It's categorised as follows:

However, In 2016, India Meteorological Department (IMD) has decided to simply replace the word “drought" to describe poor rainfall with “deficient year" and “large deficient year". The following are Updated Nomenclature:

Some Important Facts:

Recent News :

• The Drought in Numbers 2022 report, released on May 11 by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification at its15th Conference of Parties (CoP15) stated that the frequency and duration of drought have increased at an alarming rate around the world.

• The report assessment analyzed droughts and their impacts on life and livelihood over 122 years covering 196 countries and as per this report, an entirely new generation is growing up with “water scarcity.”

• India has been identified as one of the most severely drought-affected countries in the assessment.

• Droughts have affected nearly two-thirds of India from 2020 to 2022.

• India has been included in the assessment’s Global Drought Vulnerability Index.

• The impact of severe droughts was estimated to have reduced India’s GDP by 2 to 5 percent over the 20-year long period from 1998 to 2017,” according to the assessment.

• As per some of the sources, India’s drought-prone area has increased by 57% since 1997. Over the last years, almost one-third of India’s districts have experienced more than 4 droughts, and drought affects almost 50 million population in India each year.

• According to the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India, released by the Space Applications Center of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), 97.85 million hectares, that is nearly 30% of the state’s land, were degraded during the years 2018-19.

• Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal which are the major rice-producing states of India are under threat of drought because of the failure of the monsoon.

Consequences of Droughts:

Environmental Effects:

• Water Scarcity: Droughts lead to lower surface and underground water levels, causing water scarcity for both humans and ecosystems. Streams and rivers may dry up, posing a direct threat to aquatic life.

• Habitat Degradation: Wetlands can dry up, harming critical habitats for various species. Loss of water sources can disrupt ecosystems and result in reduced biodiversity.

• Increased Pollution: With reduced water flow, pollutants become more concentrated in surface water bodies, leading to increased pollution levels and threats to aquatic life.

• Fire Risk: Drier conditions create a higher risk of wildfires. Vegetation becomes more susceptible to ignition, increasing the frequency and intensity of forest fires.

• Deflation and Desertification: Droughts intensify wind erosion and deflation processes, contributing to desertification by depleting soil moisture and vegetation cover.

• Biodiversity Loss: Drought stress weakens plants, making them more susceptible to pests and diseases. This can lead to loss of plant species diversity and disrupt ecosystems.

• Tree Health Decline: Prolonged drought weakens trees, making them more vulnerable to infestations and diseases, which can result in long-term damage to forests.

Economic Losses:

• Agricultural Impacts: Droughts have a profound impact on agriculture, particularly in rainfed areas. Crop yields decrease due to water shortages, affecting food production and causing spikes in food prices.

• Higher Production Costs: Farmers need to invest in additional resources like irrigation and supplementary feed for livestock, increasing production costs and reducing profitability.

• Energy Generation: Hydroelectric power generation is hampered by lower water levels, reducing energy production from these sources.

• Tourism and Transport Disruptions: Water-based tourism and transport suffer as water bodies shrink, impacting local economies and causing revenue losses.

• Industrial Processes: Industries reliant on water, such as metallurgy and mining, face challenges due to disrupted water supplies, potentially leading to reduced production and economic losses.

Social and Health Impact:

• Health Issues: Droughts can lead to excessive heatwaves, resulting in health problems for those directly exposed. Heat-related illnesses and deaths may increase.

• Water Shortages: Dwindling water supplies can lead to limitations in access to clean drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities.

• Rising Pollution: As water bodies shrink and pollutants concentrate, water quality deteriorates, potentially leading to waterborne diseases.

• Food Insecurity: Reduced agricultural production and higher food costs can lead to food shortages and increased food insecurity, especially for vulnerable populations.

• Economic Stress: Failed harvests and economic losses in agriculture can cause financial stress for farmers and rural communities.

• Development Gap: Droughts can exacerbate disparities between developed and developing countries, as the impacts are often more severe in areas with fewer resources and weaker infrastructure.

Drought Prevention and Mitigation

• The Government of India has been actively addressing the challenges of drought prevention and mitigation through two key initiatives: the Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) initiated in 1973-74, and the Desert Development Programme (DDP) launched in 1977-78. These vital programs are focused on enhancing the resilience of regions vulnerable to drought and desertification.

• Targeting areas characterised by arid, semi-arid, and dry-sub humid conditions, these programs work to bolster the defenses against drought and combat the spread of desertification. Such regions frequently experience severe droughts and face the risk of becoming desertified.
  

• To ensure a sustained and effective approach to addressing these issues, the Ministry of Agriculture has established the National Rainfed Area Authority. This authority is comprised of a panel of experts who contribute valuable insights for the strategic improvement and management of dry land and rainfed agriculture across the nation. Their efforts play a pivotal role in devising long-term strategies for mitigating the impact of drought.

NDMA guidelines for Drought Management:

In 2010, the NDMA issued guidelines for managing droughts that will act as a base for State governments and the Union Territories to minimise the hazard. Its key features are:

Institutional Framework and Financial Arrangements:

• Creation of Separate Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs) at the state level, under the control of State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs), staffed adequately.

• State DMCs responsible for preparing vulnerability maps specific to their respective states.

• Emphasis on the watershed development approach through Government of India programs.

Assessment and Early Warning:

• Integration of ground-based and space-based information for comprehensive reporting.

• Inclusion of moisture sensors in automatic weather stations to monitor soil moisture levels.

• Standardisation of drought assessment unit and development of quicker crop yield assessment methods for timely drought impact mitigation.

Prevention, Preparedness, and Mitigation:

• Installation of automatic weather stations and rain gauges at appropriate intervals for micro-level analysis and forecasting.

• Mitigation measures include pilot studies in all categories of drought-prone areas for long-term mitigation suggestions.

• Consideration of cloud seeding as a possible mitigation measure.

• Promotion of crop diversification and utilization of sprinklers/drip irrigation systems.

• Encouragement of protective irrigation through micro irrigation systems with incentives.

• Promotion of afforestation with specific tree species and biofuel plantations.

• Development of insurance products for various agro-climatic zones to provide drought coverage.

Capacity Development:

• Formulation and implementation of a national training and capacity building program for drought management.

• Encouragement of agricultural universities and ICAR's National Research Centres to undertake research for revenue generation and problem-solving.

• Capacity building of officers and employees in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) for effective relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction activities.

Relief and Response:

• Sensitisation of agencies about their role in generating employment and building assets like tanks and wells in drought-affected areas.

• Encouragement of consumption loans in drought-prone areas and efforts to provide social security to agricultural laborers.

Preparation of Drought Management Plans (DMP):

• The National Executive Committee (NEC) will formulate a National DMP, incorporating plans from central ministries and state governments for drought-affected states and districts.

• States should adjust existing plans according to the GoI-United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Program on Disaster Risk Management.

• If possible, corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives to be coupled with drought management strategies.

Sources:

1. NCERT
2. NDMA Guidelines - Vision IAS